Skip to main content

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

  • Science and Society
  • Published:

Advances in prenatal screening: the ethical dimension

Subjects

Abstract

Prenatal screening strategies are undergoing rapid changes owing to the introduction of new testing techniques. The overall tendency is towards broadening the scope of prenatal testing through increasingly sensitive ultrasound scans and genome-wide molecular tests. In addition, non-invasive prenatal diagnosis is likely to be introduced in the near future. These developments raise important ethical questions concerning meaningful reproductive choice, the autonomy rights of future children, equity of access and the proportionality of testing.

This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution

Relevant articles

Open Access articles citing this article.

Access options

Buy this article

Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout

Figure 1: Prenatal screening cascade: current and possible future test routes.

References

  1. Bui, T.-H. & Meiner, V. in The Janus Face of Prenatal Diagnostics. A European Study Bridging Ethics, Psycholanalysis, and Medicine (eds Leuzinger-Bohleber, M,. Engels, E.-M. & Tsiantis, J.) 61–86 (Karnac Books, London, 2008).

    Google Scholar 

  2. Tapon, D. Prenatal testing for Down syndrome: comparison of screening practices in the UK and USA. J. Genet. Couns. 19, 112–130 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Salomon, L. et al. Practice guidelines for performance of the routine mid-trimester fetal ultrasound scan. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 37, 116–126 (2011).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Beauchamp, T. L. & Childress, J. F. Principles of Biomedical Ethics (Oxford Univ. Press, New York/Oxford, 2009).

    Google Scholar 

  5. Health Council of the Netherlands. Screening: between hope and hype. Health Council of the Netherlands [online], (2008).

  6. Nuffield Council on Bioethics. Genetic genetic screening: a Supplement to the 1993 Report by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics. Nuffield Council on Bioethics [online], (2006).

  7. de Wert, G. & Dondorp, W. in Prenatal medicine (eds van Vugt, M. & Shulman, K.) 575–604 (Taylor & Francis, New York/London, 2006).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  8. Wertz, D. & Knoppers, B. Serious genetic disorders: can or should they be defined? Am. J. Med. Genet. 108, 29–35 (2002).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Parens, E. & Asch, A. (eds) Prenatal Testing And Disability Rights (Georgetown Univ. Press, Georgetown, 2000).

    Google Scholar 

  10. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 88, December 2007. Invasive prenatal testing for aneuploidy. Obestet. Gynecol. 110, 1459–1467 (2007).

  11. Caine, A., Maltby, A. E., Parkin, C. A., Waters, J. J. & Crolla, J. A. Prenatal detection of Down's syndrome by rapid aneuploidy without a full karyotype: a cytogenetic risk assessment. Lancet 366, 123–128 (2005).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Leung, W. et al. Rapid aneuploidy testing (knowing less) versus traditional karyotyping (knowing more) for advanced maternal age: what would be missed, who should decide? Hong Kong Med. J. 14, 6–13 (2008).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Ogilvie, C. M,. Yaron, Y. & Beaudet, A. L. Current controversies in prenatal diagnosis 3: for prenatal diagnosis, should we offer less or more than metaphase karyotyping? Prenat Diagn. 29, 11–14 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. UK National Screening Committee. Fetal anomaly screening programme — screening for down's syndrome: UK NSC policy recommendations 2007–2010: model of best practice. Department of Health [online], (2008).

  15. Faas, B. H. W,. Cirigliano, V. & Bui, T.-H. Rapid methods for targeted prenatal diagnosis of common chromosome aneuploidies. Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med. 16, 81–87 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. van Zwieten, M. The Target of Testing. Dealing With 'Unexpected' Findings In Prenatal Diagnosis (Uitgeverij Buijten & Schipperheijn, Amsterdam, 2006).

    Google Scholar 

  17. Lim, A. et al. Rapid aneuploidy screening with fluorescence in-situ hybridisation: is it a sufficiently robust stand-alone test for prenatal diagnosis? Hong Kong Med. J. 16, 427–433 (2010).

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. de Jong, A., Dondorp, W., Timmermans, D., van Lith, J. & de Wert, G. Rapid aneuploidy detection or karyotyping? Ethical reflection. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 1 Jun 2011 (doi:10.1038/ejhg.2011.82).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  19. Boormans, E. et al. Individualized choice in prenatal diagnosis: the impact of karyotyping and standalone rapid aneuploidy detection on quality of life. Prenat. Diagn. 30, 928–936 (2010).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Bui, T.-H. Prenatal cytogenetic diagnosis: gone FISHing, BAC soon! Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 30, 247–251 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Cirigliano, V. et al. Rapid prenatal diagnosis of common chromosome aneuploidies by QF-PCR, results of 9 years of clinical experience. Prenat. Diagn. 29, 40–49 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Rochon, M. & Eddleman, K. Controversial ultrasound findings. Obstet. Gynecol. Clin. North Am. 31, 61–99 (2004).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Bethune, M. Time to reconsider our approach to echogenic intracardiac focus and choroid plexus cysts. Aust. N. Z. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. 48, 137–141 (2008).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Schoonen, H. et al. Informed decision-making about the fetal anomaly scan: what knowledge is relevant? Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 37, 649–657 (2010).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Bilardo, C., Timmerman, E., Pajkrt, E. & van Maarle, M. Increased nuchal translucency in euploid fetuses — what should we be telling the parents? Prenat. Diagn. 30, 93–102 (2010).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Sonek, J. First trimester ultrasonography in screening and detection of fetal anomalies. Am. J. Med. Genet. C Semin. Med. Genet. 145C, 145–161 (2007).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Bui, T.-H, . Vetro, A., Zuffardi, O. & Shaffer, L. G. Current controversies in prenatal diagnosis 3: is conventional chromosome analysis necessary in the post-array CGH era? Prenat. Diagn. 31, 235–243 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Dondorp, W. & de Wert, G. Publication no. 2010/15. The 'thousand-dollar genome': an ethical exploration. Health Council of the Netherlands [online], (2010).

    Google Scholar 

  29. Savage, M,. Mourad, M. & Wapner, R. Evolving applications of microarray analysis in prenatal diagnosis. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 23, 103–108 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  30. de Ravel, T., Devriendt, K., Fryns, J. & Vermeesch, J. What's new in karyotyping? The move towards array comparative genomic hybridisation (CGH). Eur. J. Pediatr. 166, 637–643 (2007).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Maya, I. et al. Diagnostic utility of array-based comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) in a prenatal setting. Prenat. Diagn. 30, 1131–1137 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Van den Veyver, I. et al. Clinical use of array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH) for prenatal diagnosis in 300 cases. Prenat. Diagn. 29, 29–39 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. American Committee of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. ACOG Committee Opinion No. 446: array comparative genomic hybridization in prenatal diagnosis. Obstet. Gynecol. 114, 1161–1163 (2009).

  34. Faas, B. et al. Identification of clinically significant, submicroscopic chromosome alterations and UPD in fetuses with ultrasound anomalies using genome-wide 250k SNP array analysis. J. Med. Genet. 47, 586–594 (2010).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Hillman, S. et al. Additional information from array comparative genomic hybridization technology over conventional karyotyping in prenatal diagnosis: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ultrasound Obstet. Gynecol. 37, 6–14 (2011).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Avent, N., Madgett, T., Maddocks, D. & Soothill, P. Cell-free fetal DNA in the maternal serum and plasma: current and evolving applications. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 21, 175–179 (2009).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Lo, Y. Noninvasive prenatal detection of fetal chromosomal aneuploidies by maternal plasma nucleic acid analysis: a review of the current state of the art. BJOG 116, 152–157 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Wright, C. Cell-free fetal nucleic acids for non-invasive prenatal diagnosis. Report of the UK expert working group. PHG Foundation [online], (2009).

    Google Scholar 

  39. Lo, Y. M. D. et al. Maternal plasma DNA sequencing reveals the genome-wide genetic and mutational profile of the fetus. Sci. Transl. Med. 2, 61ra91 (2010).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. de Jong, A., Dondorp, W., de Die-Smulders, C., Frints, S. & de Wert, G. Non-invasive prenatal testing: ethical issues explored. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 18, 272–277 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Elias, S. & Annas, G. Generic consent for genetic screening. N. Engl. J. Med. 330, 1611–1613 (1994).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Feinberg, J. in Whose Child? Children's Rights, Parental Autonomy, and State Power (eds Aiken, W. & Lafollette, H.) 124–153 (Littlefield, Adams & Co, New Jersey, 1980).

    Google Scholar 

  43. Human Genetics Commission and the UK National Screening Committee (Joint Working Group). Profiling the Newborn: A Prospective Gene Technology? (UKNSC, London, 2005).

  44. Public and Professional Policy Committee (PPPC) of the European Society of Human Genetics (ESHG). Genetic testing in asymptomatic minors: recommendations of the European Society of Human Genetics. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 17, 720–721 (2009).

  45. de Wert, G. in Prenatal Testing for Late-Onset Neurogenetic Diseases (eds Evers-Kiebooms, G., Zoetewij, M. & Harper, P.) 129–157 (Bios Scientific Publishers, Oxford, 2002).

    Book  Google Scholar 

  46. Kuppermann, M. & Norton, M. Prenatal testing guidelines: time for a new approach. Gynecol. Obstet. Invest. 60, 6–10 (2005).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Boyle, R. & Savulescu, J. Prenatal diagnosis for “minor” genetic abnormalities is ethical. Am. J. Bioeth. 3, W60–W65 (2003).

    Article  Google Scholar 

  48. Stewart, A. et al. Genetics, Health Care and Public Policy (Cambridge Univ. Press, UK, 2007).

  49. Wilson, J. & Jungner, G. Principles and practice of screening for disease. World Health Organization [online], (1968).

    Google Scholar 

  50. Health Council of the Netherlands. Genetic screening. Health Council of the Netherlands [online], (1994).

  51. Haddow, J. & Palomaki, G. in Human Genome Epidemiology. A Scientific Foundation For Using Genetic Information To Improve Health And Prevent Disease (eds Khoury, M., Little, J. & Burke, W.) 217–233 (Oxford Univ. Press, 2004).

    Google Scholar 

  52. Lo, Y. M. D. et al. DNA in maternal plasma and serum. Lancet 350, 485–487 (1997).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Wright, C. F. & Burton, H. The use of cell-free fetal nucleic acids in maternal blood for non-invasive prenatal diagnosis. Hum. Reprod. Update 15, 139–151 (2009).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Chiu, R. et al. Noninvasive prenatal diagnosis of fetal chromosomal aneuploidy by massively parallel genomic sequencing of DNA in maternal plasma. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 20458–20463 (2008).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  55. Fan, H., Blumenfeld, Y., Chitkara, U., Hudgins, L. & Quake, S. Noninvasive diagnosis of fetal aneuploidy by shotgun sequencing DNA from maternal blood. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 105, 16266–16271 (2008).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  56. Chiu, R. et al. Non-invasive prenatal assessment of trisomy 21 by multiplexed maternal plasma DNA sequencing: large scale validity study. BMJ 342, c7401 (2011).

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Chiu, R. & Lo, Y. Non-invasive prenatal diagnosis by fetal nucleic acid analysis in maternal plasma: the coming of age. Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med. 16, 88–93 (2010).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Papageorgiou, E. A. et al. Fetal-specific DNA methylation ratio permits noninvasive prenatal diagnosis of trisomy 21. Nature Med. 17, 510–513 (2011).

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

We thank M. Macville for his valuable comments on this paper. This research was supported by the Centre for Society and Genomics, funded by the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (project number: 70.1.061b) and the Dutch Research Prevention Fund project, Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research (NWO) (project number: 200320009).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Antina de Jong.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Related links

Related links

FURTHER INFORMATION

Antina de Jong's homepage

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

de Jong, A., Dondorp, W., Frints, S. et al. Advances in prenatal screening: the ethical dimension. Nat Rev Genet 12, 657–663 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg3036

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/nrg3036

This article is cited by

Search

Quick links

Nature Briefing

Sign up for the Nature Briefing newsletter — what matters in science, free to your inbox daily.

Get the most important science stories of the day, free in your inbox. Sign up for Nature Briefing