Elsevier

Public Health

Volume 121, Issue 12, December 2007, Pages 909-922
Public Health

Review Paper
The effect of season and weather on physical activity: A systematic review

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhe.2007.04.009Get rights and content

Summary

Objectives

This study reviewed previous studies to explore the effect of season, and consequently weather, on levels of physical activity.

Study design and methods

Thirty-seven primary studies (published 1980–2006) representing a total of 291 883 participants (140 482 male and 152 085 female) from eight different countries are described, and the effect of season on moderate levels of physical activity is considered.

Results

Upon review of the evidence, it appears that levels of physical activity vary with seasonality, and the ensuing effect of poor or extreme weather has been identified as a barrier to participation in physical activity among various populations. Therefore, previous studies that did not recognize the effect of weather and season on physical activity may, in fact, be poor representations of this behaviour.

Conclusions

Future physical activity interventions should consider how weather promotes or hinders such behaviour. Providing indoor opportunities during the cold and wet months may foster regular physical activity behaviours year round.

Introduction

A growing body of evidence indicates that levels of physical activity are influenced by environmental attributes, such as place of residence and accessibility of recreation facilities.1, 2 While a few studies have considered features of the natural environment, such as access to parks and playgrounds,3 seasonality and weather conditions have been relatively overlooked as determinants of physical activity. Previous studies, and common logic, dictate that attributes such as amount of daylight, extreme temperatures and precipitation levels might influence physical activity behaviours, especially walking outdoors, the most common physical activity undertaken by all populations.4, 5 Weather conditions can strongly promote or deter physical activity behaviours.6 Studies specific to children have suggested that being outdoors has been identified as a significant predicator of levels of physical activity.7, 8, 9, 10, 11 Therefore, the aim of this review is to gain a better understanding of the effects of seasonal differences and variations in weather on levels of physical activity. As the amount of outdoor recreation time fluctuates according to season, and seasonality varies according to geographic location, this review will also consider regional variations among different countries.

Physical inactivity has been acknowledged as a causal factor to the current obesity epidemic.12 Physical activity has numerous physiological and psychological health benefits, including reduced risk of coronary heart disease, hypertension, colon cancer, osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, depression and anxiety, while allowing for controlled weight loss.13, 14, 15 Despite the abundant health benefits, 56% of Canadians remain inactive.16

Currently in Canada, 56% of males and 39% of females are overweight or obese.17 These rates have been echoed in the USA where a higher prevalence is evident in both males and females.15 Obesity has been linked with major preventable diseases, including type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, stroke, gallbladder disease and some forms of cancer.18, 19, 20 The healthcare costs associated with Canadians’ obesity-related diseases are approximately 1.8 billion dollars/year.21 Therefore, effective interventions that address and overcome current barriers to participation in physical activity are necessary in order to combat this disease.

Studies have provided conflicting results regarding levels of physical activity during the varying seasons; however, weather has been reported as a barrier to physical activity.6, 22, 23 The resulting information is particularly valuable for determining how physical activity interventions must be modified during different seasons of the year, and for identifying the critical need for studies of physical activity prevalence among certain populations with respect to time of year. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to conduct a systematic review of the current literature pertaining to how season and weather affect levels of physical activity. For the purpose of this review, season will be defined as the natural periods in which the year is divided, which fluctuate by weather conditions, daylight hours and temperature. They will also be based upon the Northern hemisphere experience of spring and summer falling in April–August. Weather will be defined as meteorological conditions, such as temperature, wind, clouds and precipitation.

Section snippets

Methods

To obtain applicable literature for this systematic review, computerized searches of six databases were conducted in the English-language literature: Medline, CINHAL, PsychINFO, Physical Education Index, Geobase and PubMed. The search terms used to identify the chosen articles were: physical activity; season; weather; environmental influences; environmental predicators; climate; rain; snow; winter; and exercise. For thoroughness, the references incorporated within relevant articles, which

Results

From the 37 primary studies (published 1980–2006) representing a total of 291 883 participants (140 482 male and 152 085 female) from eight different countries (Canada, USA, Australia, Cyprus, Scotland, The Netherlands, France and Guatemala), it appears that season, and subsequently weather, have an integral effect on physical activity behaviours. Twenty-seven of 37 articles (73%) reported that weather has a significant impact on physical activity behaviours. For example, a study by Loucaides et

Discussion and conclusions

The need to account for environmental variables, specifically weather, when developing physical activity interventions has become increasingly clear. This systematic review concurs with Tu et al. who noted the importance of considering environmental variables that may support or hinder physical activity behaviours throughout the year.23 Poor weather has been identified as an environmental barrier to being physically active,32, 33 but to date, specific aspects of the weather/season have been

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