Investigator/year | Setting | Method | Data source (population) | Mandate change studied (year) | Outcome of interest | Main findings |
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Averhoff et al., (23) 2004 | San Diego, Calif., US | Uncontrolled before–after study using survey data | Random-digit-dial telephone survey in 1998 (n = 205) and 1999 (n = 378) | 7th grade hepatitis B and MMR mandate (1999) | 3-dose hepatitis B and 2-dose MMR |
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Bugenske et al., (24) 2012 | US | Retrospective analysis of data from cross-sectional vaccination coverage survey | NIS-Teen 2008–2009 (landline only, provider-verified records only) (2008 n = 17 835; 2009 n = 20 066) | Middle school vaccination mandate (2008–2009) | Increase in coverage of Tdap, HPV and MCV vaccines, and increase of all recommended vaccines in adolescents 13–17 yr of age |
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Carpenter et al., (25) 2019 | US | Difference-in-differences analysis based on retrospective analysis of data from cross-sectional vaccination coverage survey | NIS-Teen 2008–2013 (including cellphone from 2011 onward) (n = 116 403) | Middle school Tdap vaccination mandate (2005–2015) | Increase in Tdap coverage at age 10–13 yr in states with Tdap mandates | Tdap uptake about 13% higher in states with mandates, with spillover effects to other vaccines (HPV and MCV) |
Cuff et al., (26) 2016 | Virginia, US | Prospective cohort study using administrative data and telephone survey | University of Virginia Clinical Data Repository 2014 (n = 908 girls) | 6th grade HPV mandate for girls (2009) | HPV vaccine initiation (≥ 1 dose) in girls 11–12 yr of age and proportion vaccinated in 2009 and 2014 cohorts | Mandate had no effect on HPV coverage 5 yr after mandate implementation |
D’Ancona et al., (20) 2018 | Italy | Uncontrolled before–after study of administrative data | Administrative information database collected by local health units for the Ministry of Health 2013–2017 (entire population; n unspecified) | Increase from 4 to 10 required vaccines; imposition of fines up to age 16 yr and exclusion up to age 6 yr for noncompliance (2017) | Polio and measles vaccine by age 7 yr |
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Jackson et al., (39) 1972 | Oklahoma, US | Uncontrolled before–after study of administrative data | 1st grade students in 33 randomly selected counties (n = 8762) | School entry mandate for diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, measles and rubella (1970) | 3 doses DTP and orally administered polio, 1 dose rubella and measles or record of disease, smallpox vaccine | Increase in vaccination completion in first year of mandate, including for nonmandated smallpox; statistical significance of change not tested |
Jacobs et al., (27) 2004 | US | Cohort study using clinical data sample | Practices (n = 53) recruited through mailing to doctors in AMA master file and enrolling first practices to respond; 20 adolescent patients (11–15 yr) per pediatric or general practice (n = 982 patients) | Middle school entry hepatitis B mandates (pre-2000) | Completion of 2- or 3-dose hepatitis B series | Presence of mandate was strongest predictor of completion of hepatitis B series |
Karikari et al., (28) 2017 | Illinois, US | Uncontrolled before–after study of administrative data | Illinois State Board of Education database 2012–2013 and 2014–2015 (n = 1 151 993) and CDC survey data from 2012–2014 (n not unspecified; data source unclear) | Tdap mandate for 6th–12th grade (2013) | Adolescent Tdap vaccination | Both data sources showed higher Tdap coverage after the mandate, although numbers varied greatly between the 2 data sources |
Kharbanda et al., (32) 2010 | New York, NY, US | Uncontrolled before–after study using administrative data from a clinical network | EzVAC, a hospital- and clinic-based vaccination registry, 2006–2008 (n = 2577) | 6th grade entry Tdap mandate (2007) | Tdap and MCV4 coverage in 11- to 14-year-olds enrolled in EzVAC network |
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Morita et al., (29) 2008 | Chicago, Ill., US | Uncontrolled before–after study of administrative data | Chicago public schools’ vaccination database 2000–2005 (n = 106 541) | 5th grade hepatitis B mandate (1997) | Hepatitis B coverage by grade 12 (overall, and racial/ethnic disparities in coverage) |
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Moss et al., (30) 2016 | US | Retrospective analysis of data from cross-sectional vaccination coverage survey | NIS-Teen 2009–2012 (unspecified whether provider-verified or all, or whether cellphone included from 2011 on) (n = 99 921) | Middle school Tdap, MCV and HPV mandates (various) | Adolescent (13–17 yr) coverage of Tdap booster and MCV, and HPV among girls (1-dose series) |
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Olshen et al., (31) 2007 | 27 US states + DC | Cross-sectional study | Health Plan Employer Data and Information Set 2003 (n = 100 000) | Mandates for hepatitis B and varicella before 2003 (various) | Policy attribute that is associated with higher mean coverage |
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Omer et al., (22) 2018 | Washington State, US | Uncontrolled before–after study using administrative data | Washington State Department of Health 1997–1998 to 2013–2014 (n not reported) | New procedures requiring certificate signed by health care provider for medical exemptions (2011) | Kindergarten vaccination rates |
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Perkins et al., (33) 2016 | US | Retrospective analysis of data from cross-sectional vaccination coverage survey | NIS-Teen 2009–2013 (provider-verified responses only; unspecified whether cellphone included from 2011 on) (n = 47 845 parents of girls) | Middle school HPV mandate for girls (DC, Virginia) and HPV education mandate (Louisiana, Michigan, Colorado, Indiana, Iowa, Illinois, New Jersey, North Carolina, Texas, Washington) (various) | HPV vaccine coverage (series initiation, completion) in girls | No difference in HPV coverage between girls in states with school entry vaccine mandates or education mandates compared to no mandates |
Pierre-Victor et al., (34) 2017 | Virginia, Tennessee, and South Carolina, US | Retrospective analysis of data from cross-sectional vaccination coverage survey | NIS-Teen 2008–2012 (landline only; excluding those who did not respond about HPV) (n = 3203 parents of girls) | Middle school HPV mandate for girls (Virginia) (2009) | HPV vaccine initiation | Trends were not different in Virginia with mandate compared to Tennessee and South Carolina without mandate |
Potter et al., (35) 2014 | Michigan, US | Uncontrolled before–after study using administrative data | Michigan Care Improvement Registry (statewide vaccination registry) 2009 and 2010 (2009 n = 133 738; 2010 n = 131 051) | New mandate at 6th grade entry for Tdap, MCV4, varicella (2010) | Completion of all required vaccines (as a single variable); time to completion (up-to-date status) of all required vaccines; initiation of HPV vaccine (girls only) | Vaccine completion (up to date for all) was higher in year after mandate, and time to completion was shorter |
Simpson et al., (36) 2013 | Arizona, US | Uncontrolled before–after study using administrative data | Arizona State Immunization Information System 2006–2011 (n = 954 953 records) | New mandate for MCV4 for 6th grade entry if aged ≥ 11 yr (2008) | MCV4 coverage | Vaccine coverage for 12-year-olds was higher after mandate than before mandate |
Thompson et al., (21) 1994 | Victoria, Australia | Uncontrolled before–after study using administrative data | Victoria Directorate of School Education mid-year census 1991 and 1992 (1576 schools included; 1992 n = 45 049 students) | Documentation mandate for school entry (1992) | Submitted documentation of immunization status; documentation of complete (up-to-date) vaccination for age | Small increase in submitted documentation after policy mandate, including small increase in documentation of fully vaccinated students and larger increase in documentation of incompletely vaccinated students |
Thompson et al., (37) 2018 | Rhode Island, US | Retrospective analysis of data from cross-sectional vaccination coverage survey | NIS-Teen 2010–2016 (unspecified whether cellphone included from 2011 on; parent report only) (n unspecified) | HPV mandate for initiation by 7th grade and completion by 9th grade (2015) | Initiation of HPV series |
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Wilson et al., (38) 2005 | Kansas City, Mo., and Kansas City, Kan., US | Retrospective cohort study of school samples | Random sample of vaccine records from purposive sample of 11 high schools in 2003 (n = 2230) | Hepatitis B mandate for elementary school (1997) and middle school (1999) (Missouri) | 3 hepatitis B vaccine doses at 9th grade |
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Note: AMA = American Medical Association, CDC = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, MCV = meningococcal vaccines, MenACWY = meningococcal conjugate vaccine for protection against serogroups A, C, W and Y, MMR = measles/mumps/rubella, NIS-Teen = National Immunization Survey-Teen, (40) Td = tetanus/diphtheria, Tdap = tetanus/diphtheria/acellular pertussis.