Article Figures & Tables
Tables
Characteristic No. (%) of people* Standardized difference, %† Immigrants (n = 1 947 646) Long-term residents (n = 9 244 570) Age, yr, mean ± standard deviation 44.1 ± 15.5 47.3 ± 19.2 17 Age category, yr 16-19 76 073 (3.9) 599 264 (6.6) 12 20-29 290 314 (14.9) 1 510 757 (16.3) 4 30-39 419 949 (21.6) 1 380 229 (14.9) 17 40-49 493 544 (25.3) 1 498 785 (16.2) 23 50-59 370 569 (19.0) 1 657 095 (17.9) 3 60-69 163 899 (8.4) 1 301 436 (14.1) 18 70-79 86 024 (4.4) 775 156 (8.4) 16 ≥ 80 47 274 (2.4) 521 848 (5.6) 16 Female sex 933 639 (47.9) 4 841 077 (52.4) 9 Rural residence‡ 24 848 (1.3) 1 243 904 (13.4) 48 Neighbourhood income quintile First (lowest) 493 294 (25.3) 1 618 342 (17.5) 19 Second 428 901 (22.0) 1 760 076 (19.0) 7 Third 409 244 (21.0) 1 864 728 (20.2) 2 Fourth 368 900 (18.9) 1 984 856 (21.5) 6 Fifth (highest) 247 307 (12.7) 2 016 568 (21.8) 24 Residential instability quintile First (lowest) 604 813 (31.0) 2 350 648 (25.4) 13 Second 350 284 (18.0) 1 969 402 (21.3) 8 Third 207 937 (10.7) 1 542 066 (16.7) 18 Fourth 335 781 (17.2) 1 636 146 (17.7) 1 Fifth (highest) 433 725 (22.3) 1 615 948 (17.5) 12 Missing 15 106 (0.8) 130 360 (1.4) 6 Ethnic concentration quintile First (lowest) 40 269 (2.1) 1 280 350 (13.8) 45 Second 73 994 (3.8) 1 620 959 (17.5) 46 Third 125 735 (6.4) 1 749 603 (18.9) 38 Fourth 294 318 (15.1) 1 963 863 (21.2) 16 Fifth (highest) 1 398 224 (71.8) 2 499 435 (27.0) 100 Missing 15 106 (0.8) 130 360 (1.4) 6 Dependency quintile First (lowest) 663 665 (34.1) 1 977 392 (21.4) 29 Second 529 973 (27.2) 2 034 206 (22.0) 12 Third 335 353 (17.2) 1 815 183 (19.6) 6 Fourth 214 055 (11.0) 1 609 352 (17.4) 18 Fifth (highest) 189 494 (9.7) 1 678 077 (18.2) 24 Missing 15 106 (0.8) 130 360 (1.4) 6 Material deprivation quintile First (lowest) 502 397 (25.8) 2 461 225 (26.6) 2 Second 402 011 (20.6) 2 135 074 (23.1) 6 Third 377 933 (19.4) 1 825 100 (19.7) 1 Fourth 331 916 (17.0) 1 488 359 (16.1) 2 Fifth (highest) 318 283 (16.3) 1 204 452 (13.0) 9 Missing 15 106 (0.8) 130 360 (1.4) 6 Characteristic No. (%) of people* Standardized difference, %† Immigrants (n = 1 947 646) Long-term residents (n = 9 244 570) World region of birth East Asia and Pacific 499 533 (25.6) - - South Asia 474 101 (24.3) - - Latin America and Caribbean 269 170 (13.8) - - Eastern Europe and Central Asia 215 856 (11.1) - - Middle East and North Africa 181 565 (9.3) - - Western Europe 153 259 (7.9) - - Sub-Saharan Africa 115 371 (5.9) - - United States, Australia and New Zealand 38 014 (2.0) - - Other 777 (< 0.1) - - Education University degree or higher 502 234 (25.8) - - Some university 80 655 (4.1) - - Nonuniversity qualifications (e.g., college diploma) 277 160 (14.2) - - Secondary or less 923 002 (47.4) - - None 164 521 (8.4) - - Missing 74 (< 0.01) - - Time since arrival in Canada, yr ≥ 20 512 570 (26.3) - - 15-19 379 567 (19.5) - - 10-14 453 966 (23.3) - - 4-9 518 677 (26.6) - - < 4 82 866 (4.2) - - Language ability English 1 149 609 (59.0) - - French 16 612 (0.8) - - Both 49 192 (2.5) - - Neither 732 166 (37.6) - - Missing 67 (< 0.01) - - Marital status Married 1 035 265 (53.2) - - Separated, divorced, widowed 74 680 (3.8) - - Single 837 396 (43.0) - - Missing 305 (< 0.1) - - Immigrant class Economic 899 634 (46.2) - - Family 685 080 (35.2) - - Refugee 312 174 (16.0) - - Other 50 750 (2.6) - - Missing 8 (< 0.01) - - *Except for age (mean ± standard deviation).
†Compared to long-term residents. Standardized differences greater than 10% represent a meaningful difference between the 2 groups.
‡Areas with a population less than 10 000.
- Table 2: Characteristics associated with donor registration among immigrants and long-term residents combined
Characteristic No. (%) registered Prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval) Unadjusted Adjusted* World region of birth Long-term residents (n = 9 244 570) 2 453 116 (26.5) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Immigrants (n = 1 947 646) 231 180 (11.9) East Asia and Pacific 41 752 (8.4) 0.31 (0.31-0.32) 0.39 (0.38-0.40) South Asia 53 077 (11.2) 0.42 (0.42-0.43) 0.53 (0.52-0.54) Latin America and Caribbean 41 006 (15.2) 0.57 (0.57-0.58) 0.68 (0.67-0.69) Eastern Europe and Central Asia 20 222 (9.4) 0.35 (0.35-0.36) 0.38 (0.37-0.40) Middle East and North Africa 19 059 (10.5) 0.40 (0.39-0.40) 0.47 (0.46-0.49) Western Europe 31 637 (20.6) 0.78 (0.77-0.79) 0.79 (0.78-0.81) Sub-Saharan Africa 9080 (7.9) 0.30 (0.29-0.30) 0.35 (0.33-0.36) United States, Australia and New Zealand 15 209 (40.0) 1.51 (1.49-1.53) 1.40 (1.36-1.43) Other 138 (17.8) 0.67 (0.58-0.78) 1.01 (0.74-1.36) Age category, yr 16-19 107 575 (15.9) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 20-29 406 873 (22.6) 1.42 (1.41-1.43) 1.45 (1.43-1.47) 30-39 526 486 (29.2) 1.84 (1.83-1.85) 1.96 (1.94-1.99) 40-49 556 450 (27.9) 1.75 (1.74-1.76) 1.85 (1.82-1.87) 50-59 502 942 (24.8) 1.56 (1.55-1.57) 1.54 (1.52-1.56) 60-69 349 575 (23.9) 1.50 (1.49-1.51) 1.41 (1.39-1.43) 70-79 165 279 (19.2) 1.20 (1.20-1.21) 1.11 (1.10-1.13) ≥ 80 69 116 (12.1) 0.76 (0.76-0.77) 0.69 (0.68-0.70) Sex Female 1 495 776 (25.9) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Male 1 188 520 (21.9) 0.85 (0.85-0.85) 0.83 (0.83-0.83) Residence Urban 2 306 304 (23.2) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Rural† 377 992 (29.8) 1.28 (1.28-1.29) 0.97 (0.96-0.98) Neighbourhood income quintile First (lowest) 430 400 (20.4) 0.86 (0.86-0.86) 1.03 (1.02-1.04) Second 491 648 (22.5) 0.95 (0.95-0.95) 1.00 (0.99-1.01) Third 537 122 (23.6) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 588 534 (25.0) 1.06 (1.05-1.06) 1.00 (0.99-1.00) Fifth (highest) 636 592 (28.1) 1.19 (1.18-1.19) 1.02 (1.01-1.02) Ethnic concentration quintile† First (lowest) 417 114 (31.6) 1.08 (1.08-1.08) 1.11 (1.10-1.11) Second 524 728 (31.0) 1.06 (1.06-1.06) 1.07 (1.06-1.07) Third 548 379 (29.2) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 582 938 (25.8) 0.88 (0.88-0.89) 0.89 (0.89-0.89) Fifth (highest) 575 086 (14.8) 0.50 (0.50-0.51) 0.58 (0.57-0.58) Material deprivation quintile† First (lowest) 772 427 (26.1) 1.11 (1.10-1.11) 1.10 (1.10-1.11) Second 625 442 (24.7) 1.05 (1.04-1.05) 1.02 (1.01-1.03) Third 519 271 (23.6) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 414 418 (22.3) 0.97 (0.96-0.97) 1.00 (0.99-1.01) Fifth (highest) 316 687 (20.8) 0.88 (0.88-0.89) 0.99 (0.98-1.01) *Adjusted for world region of birth, sex, residence, age category, neighbourhood income quintile, material deprivation quintile and ethnic concentration quintile. Adjusted analysis based on a random sample of 20% (n = 2 238 443).
†Data missing for 145 466 people (1.3%), of whom 36 051 were registered for donor and tissue donation.
Characteristic No. (%) registered* Prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval) Unadjusted Adjusted† World region of birth East Asia and Pacific 41 748 (8.4) 0.21 (0.21-0.21) 0.28 (0.27-0.28) South Asia 53 066 (11.2) 0.28 (0.28-0.28) 0.37 (0.36-0.38) Latin America and Caribbean 40 985 (15.2) 0.38 (0.38-0.39) 0.51 (0.50-0.52) Eastern Europe and Central Asia 20 216 (9.4) 0.23 (0.23-0.24) 0.28 (0.27-0.28) Middle East and North Africa 19 056 (10.5) 0.26 (0.26-0.27) 0.33 (0.32-0.33) Western Europe 31 634 (20.6) 0.52 (0.51-0.52) 0.57 (0.56-0.58) Sub-Saharan Africa 9 078 (7.9) 0.20 (0.19-0.20) 0.26 (0.26-0.27) United States, Australia and New Zealand 15 207 (40.0) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Other 138 (17.8) 0.44 (0.38-0.52) 0.58 (0.50-0.67) Age category, yr 16-19 4 545 (6.0) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 20-29 31 791 (11.0) 1.83 (1.78-1.89) 1.85 (1.80-1.91) 30-39 57 841 (13.8) 2.31 (2.24-2.37) 2.23 (2.16-2.30) 40-49 68 319 (13.8) 2.32 (2.25-2.39) 2.02 (1.95-2.08) 50-59 44 244 (11.9) 2.00 (1.94-2.06) 1.76 (1.70-1.82) 60-69 16 302 (9.9) 1.66 (1.61-1.72) 1.57 (1.52-1.63) 70-79 5 931 (6.9) 1.15 (1.11-1.20) 1.28 (1.23-1.33) ≥ 80 2 155 (4.6) 0.76 (0.73-0.80) 0.88 (0.84-0.93) Sex Female 121 402 (12.0) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Male 109 726 (11.8) 0.98 (0.97-0.99) 0.93 (0.93-0.94) Residence Urban 224 266 (11.7) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Rural 6 862 (28.3) 2.43 (2.38-2.48) 1.24 (1.21-1.26) Neighbourhood income quintile First (lowest) 43 634 (8.8) 0.73 (0.72-0.74) 0.96 (0.94-0.97) Second 46 543 (10.9) 0.90 (0.89-0.91) 1.00 (0.99-1.01) Third 49 520 (12.1) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 49 308 (13.4) 1.10 (1.09-1.12) 1.09 (1.08-1.11) Fifth (highest) 42 123 (17.0) 1.41 (1.39-1.42) 1.02 (1.00-1.03) Ethnic concentration quintile‡ First (lowest) 9 435 (23.4) 1.27 (1.25-1.30) 1.12 (1.10-1.15) Second 15 272 (20.6) 1.12 (1.10-1.14) 1.06 (1.04-1.08) Third 23 119 (18.4) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 43 565 (14.8) 0.81 (0.79-0.82) 0.88 (0.86-0.89) Fifth (highest) 137 715 (9.9) 0.54 (0.53-0.54) 0.70 (0.69-0.71) Characteristic No. (%) registered* Prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval) Unadjusted Adjusted† Material deprivation quintile‡ First (lowest) 72 247 (14.4) 1.23 (1.21-1.24) 1.09 (1.08-1.10) Second 52 4a77 (13.1) 1.11 (1.10-1.13) 1.04 (1.03-1.05) Third 44 268 (11.9) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 33 461 (10.1) 0.86 (0.85-0.87) 0.92 (0.91-0.93) Fifth (highest) 26 653 (8.4) 0.71 (0.70-0.73) 0.82 (0.80-0.83) Education§ University degree or higher 71 901 (14.3) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Some university 11 142 (13.8) 0.97 (0.95-0.98) 0.96 (0.95-0.98) Nonuniversity qualifications (e.g., college diploma) 36 403 (13.1) 0.92 (0.91-0.93) 0.92 (0.91-0.93) Secondary or less 95 818 (10.4) 0.73 (0.72-0.73) 0.78 (0.77-0.79) None 15 864 (9.6) 0.67 (0.66-0.68) 0.81 (0.80-0.83) Time since arrival in Canada, yr ≥ 20 56 371 (11.0) 1.23 (1.21-1.26) 1.31 (1.28-1.35) 15-19 53 046 (14.0) 1.57 (1.53-1.61) 1.76 (1.72-1.80) 10-14 60 633 (13.4) 1.50 (1.47-1.53) 1.66 (1.62-1.70) 4-9 53 695 (10.4) 1.16 (1.14-1.19) 1.21 (1.18-1.23) < 4 7 383 (8.9) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Language ability§ English 160 835 (14.0) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] French 1 305 (7.9) 0.56 (0.53-0.59) 0.66 (0.63-0.70) Both 7 704 (15.7) 1.12 (1.10-1.14) 1.06 (1.04-1.08) Neither 61 284 (8.4) 0.60 (0.59-0.60) 0.76 (0.75-0.77) Marital status§ Married 121 619 (11.7) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Separated, divorced, widowed 6 876 (9.2) 0.78 (0.77-0.80) 1.06 (1.04-1.09) Single 102 633 (12.3) 1.04 (1.04-1.05) 1.11 (1.10-1.12) Immigrant class§ Economic 119 029 (13.2) 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Family 74 731 (10.9) 0.82 (0.82-0.83) 0.86 (0.86-0.87) Refugee 31 305 (10.0) 0.76 (0.75-0.77) 0.95 (0.94-0.96) Other 6 063 (11.9) 0.90 (0.88-0.93) 0.96 (0.93-0.98) *Total number of immigrants for this analysis was 1 947 192, of whom 231 128 were registered for organ and tissue donation; 454 immigrants, of whom 52 were registered, had missing data on immigration-related characteristics and were excluded from this cohort.
†Adjusted for world region of birth, sex, residence, age category, neighbourhood income quintile, material deprivation quintile, ethnic concentration quintile, education, time since arrival in Canada, language ability, marital status and immigrant class.
‡Data missing for 15 102 people (< 1.0%), of whom 2022 were registered.
§Data missing for 454 people (< 0.01%), of whom 52 were registered, who were then further excluded from analysis.
- Table 4: Characteristics associated with donor registration among immigrants from the 5 countries with the highest numbers of unregistered immigrants
Characteristic Adjusted prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval)* India China Philippines Pakistan Sri Lanka Age category, yr 16-19 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 20-29 1.57 (1.44-1.71) 1.64 (1.43-1.88) 1.74 (1.55-1.97) 2.1 (1.78-2.48) 1.87 (1.61-2.18) 30-39 1.69 (1.55-1.85) 1.41 (1.21-1.63) 1.85 (1.63-2.10) 2.1 (1.76-2.51) 2.09 (1.79-2.44) 40-49 1.85 (1.69-2.02) 1.28 (1.10-1.48) 1.44 (1.26-1.65) 2.18 (1.82-2.61) 1.75 (1.49-2.04) 50-59 1.71 (1.56-1.87) 1.17 (1.01-1.37) 1.10 (0.96-1.27) 2.37 (1.96-2.87) 1.44 (1.23-1.7) 60-69 1.40 (1.27-1.54) 1.08 (0.92-1.28) 0.83 (0.71-0.97) 2.56 (2.08-3.14) 1.26 (1.06-1.49) 70-79 1.19 (1.07-1.32) 0.85 (0.71-1.01) 0.54 (0.44-0.66) 2.37 (1.83-3.09) 1.3 (1.08-1.56) ≥ 80 0.94 (0.82-1.08) 0.58 (0.47-0.71) 0.38 (0.29-0.49) 2.3 (1.59-3.33) 0.94 (0.75-1.17) Sex Female 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Male 1.01 (0.99-1.03) 1.03 (0.99-1.06) 0.81 (0.78-0.84) 1.09 (1.03-1.15) 1.04 (1.00-1.08) Residence Urban 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Rural† 1.09 (0.96-1.23) 1.22 (0.98-1.52) 1.38 (1.16-1.65) 1.41 (1.02-1.93) 1.11 (0.83-1.48) Neighbourhood income quintile First (lowest) 0.90 (0.87-0.94) 1.1 (1.04-1.18) 0.90 (0.85-0.97) 0.89 (0.80-0.98) 0.99 (0.93-1.06) Second 0.95 (0.92-0.98) 1.01 (0.95-1.06) 0.96 (0.91-1.01) 1.04 (0.96-1.13) 0.96 (0.92-1.01) Third 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 1.04 (1.01-1.07) 1.04 (0.99-1.1) 1.05 (0.99-1.11) 0.96 (0.89-1.04) 1.00 (0.95-1.06) Fifth (highest) 1.14 (1.10-1.18) 1.06 (1.00-1.12) 0.98 (0.91-1.05) 1.18 (1.08-1.30) 1.15 (1.07-1.23) Ethnic concentration quintile First (lowest) 1.02 (0.92-1.12) 1.21 (1.04-1.41) 1.08 (0.93-1.24) 1.16 (0.91-1.49) 1.07 (0.87-1.32) Second 1.01 (0.94-1.09) 1.16 (1.03-1.32) 1.09 (0.98-1.22) 0.92 (0.76-1.12) 1.07 (0.93-1.24) Third 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 0.91 (0.87-0.96) 0.96 (0.88-1.05) 0.87 (0.81-0.95) 1.07 (0.94-1.23) 0.89 (0.8-0.99) Fifth (highest) 0.82 (0.78-0.86) 0.76 (0.70-0.82) 0.77 (0.72-0.83) 0.88 (0.77-0.99) 0.81 (0.74-0.89) Material deprivation quintile First (lowest) 1.06 (1.02-1.09) 0.99 (0.94-1.05) 1.11 (1.05-1.18) 0.97 (0.89-1.05) 1.13 (1.06-1.19) Second 1.00 (0.97-1.03) 1.01 (0.96-1.07) 1.01 (0.95-1.07) 0.98 (0.91-1.06) 1.03 (0.98-1.08) Third 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Fourth 0.89 (0.86-0.92) 0.89 (0.84-0.94) 0.93 (0.87-0.98) 0.77 (0.70-0.85) 0.94 (0.89-0.99) Fifth (highest) 0.77 (0.74-0.81) 0.86 (0.80-0.93) 0.93 (0.86-0.99) 0.76 (0.68-0.86) 0.86 (0.80-0.92) Characteristic Adjusted prevalence ratio (95% confidence interval)* India China Philippines Pakistan Sri Lanka Education University degree or higher 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Some university 0.91 (0.86-0.96) 0.87 (0.8-0.93) 0.84 (0.79-0.91) 1.28 (1.11-1.48) 0.88 (0.79-0.98) Nonuniversity qualifications (e.g., college diploma) 0.81 (0.78-0.83) 0.55 (0.52-0.58) 0.82 (0.77-0.86) 0.90 (0.84-0.97) 0.70 (0.66-0.74) Secondary or less 0.96 (0.93-0.99) 0.75 (0.71-0.79) 0.78 (0.74-0.82) 0.91 (0.84-1.00) 0.89 (0.83-0.95) None 0.71 (0.67-0.75) 0.58 (0.52-0.65) 0.76 (0.69-0.84) 0.92 (0.81-1.05) 0.72 (0.66-0.79) Time since arrival in Canada, yr ≥ 20 1.41 (1.32-1.51) 1.78 (1.54-2.06) 1.77 (1.61-1.95) 2.04 (1.63-2.55) 1.48 (1.32-1.67) 15-19 2.09 (1.96-2.23) 3.57 (3.14-4.06) 2.35 (2.15-2.57) 2.52 (2.05-3.09) 1.83 (1.64-2.06) 10-14 1.97 (1.85-2.09) 2.92 (2.58-3.31) 2.17 (1.99-2.37) 2.04 (1.67-2.50) 1.87 (1.67-2.10) 4-9 1.22 (1.15-1.30) 1.37 (1.21-1.55) 1.51 (1.39-1.65) 1.23 (1.01-1.51) 1.19 (1.06-1.33) < 4 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Language ability English 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] French 0.71 (0.69-0.73) 0.73 (0.70-0.75) 0.93 (0.88-0.98) 0.60 (0.56-0.65) 0.77 (0.74-0.81) Both 1.16 (1.04-1.29) 0.93 (0.75-1.17) 1.60 (1.12-2.28) 1.18 (0.86-1.63) 1.02 (0.78-1.34) Neither 0.71 (0.69-0.73) 0.73 (0.70-0.75) 0.93 (0.88-0.98) 0.60 (0.56-0.65) 0.77 (0.74-0.81) Marital status Married 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Separated, divorced,
widowed1.09 (1.01-1.18) 1.23 (1.11-1.37) 1.08 (0.96-1.21) 1.10 (0.90-1.34) 0.98 (0.88-1.10) Single 1.12 (1.09-1.15) 1.19 (1.14-1.25) 0.97 (0.93-1.01) 1.24 (1.16-1.33) 1.05 (1.01-1.10) Immigrant class Economic 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] 1.00 [Reference] Family 0.80 (0.78-0.82) 0.86 (0.82-0.91) 0.84 (0.81-0.88) 0.82 (0.76-0.88) 0.73 (0.69-0.77) Refugee 0.96 (0.89-1.04) 0.73 (0.67-0.80) 1.33 (0.98-1.79) 1.39 (1.28-1.51) 0.83 (0.79-0.87) Other 1.04 (0.93-1.17) 0.68 (0.60-0.76) 1.06 (0.90-1.25) 1.33 (1.10-1.62) 0.95 (0.86-1.05) *Adjusted for world region of birth, sex, residence, age category, neighbourhood income quintile, material deprivation quintile, ethnic concentration quintile, education, time since arrival in Canada, language ability, marital status and immigrant class.
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