Abstract
Objective
To study the continuity of psychopathology from the age of 3–12 years.
Methods
In a population-based birth cohort, children’s emotional and behavioral problems were assessed at age 3 using the Child Behavior Checklist 2–3 (CBCL 2–3), and at age 12 by parents using the CBCL 11–18, and the Youth Self Report (YSR) completed by the children. Behavioral ratings were obtained from 800 subjects at both time points.
Results
externalizing problems at age 3 predicted both externalizing and internalizing problems among both genders in preadolescence. In girls, internalizing behavior at age 3 predicted parent-reported internalizing behavior, and associated negatively with externalizing behavior in self-reports at age 12. Aggressive behavior was found to be remarkably stable, and both aggressive and destructive behavior independently predicted a wide range of later externalizing and internalizing problems. Parent ratings of withdrawal showed stability from early childhood to preadolescence in both genders. Somatic complaints of 3-year-old girls independently predicted both externalizing and internalizing problems.
Conclusions
The results show the complexity of pathways in psychopathology from early childhood to preadolescence. In particular, aggressive and destructive behaviors in very early childhood predict later problems and necessitate early recognition and possible intervention at an early age. An instrument like the CBCL 2–3 is valuable in the early detection of children at risk of long-term problems.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Achenbach TM, Howell CT, McConaughy SH, Stanger C (1987) Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specificity. Psychol Bull 101:213–232
Achenbach TM (1991a) Manual for the child behavior checklist 4–18 and 1991 profile. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry, Burlington
Achenbach TM (1991b) Manual for the youth self report and 1991 profile. University of Vermont, Department of Psychiatry, Burlington
Achenbach TM, Howell CT, McConaughy SH, Stanger C (1995) Six-year predictors of problems in a national sample, III: transition to young adult syndromes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:658–669
Anderson LM, Shinn C, Fullilove MT, Scrimshaw SC, Fielding JE, Normand J, Carande-Kulis VG (2003) The effectiveness of early childhood development programs: a systematic review. Am J Prev Med 24:32–48
Brestan EV, Eyberg SM (1998) Effective psychosocial treatments of conduct-disordered children and adolescents: 29 years, 82 studies, and 5272 kids. J Clin Child Psychiatry 27:180–189
Campbell SB (1995) Behavior problems in preschool children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 36:113–149
Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Newman DI, Silva PA (1996) Behavioral observations at age 3 predict adult psychiatric disorders: longitudinal evidence from a birth cohort. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53:1033–1039
Cohen P, Cohen J, Kasen S, Velez N, Hartmark C, Johnson J, Rojas M, Brook J, Streunung E (1993) An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence—I: age- and gender-specific prevalence. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 34:851–867
Cohen P, Cohen J, Kasen S, Velez N, Hartmark C, Johnson J, Rojas M, Brook J, Streunung E (1993) An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence—II: persistence of disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 34:869–877
Costello EJ, Angold A, Keeler GP (1999) Adolescent outcomes of childhood disorders: the consequences of severity and impairment. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38:121–128
Egeland B, Pianta R, Ogawa J (1996) Early behaviour problems: pathways to mental disorders in adolescence. Dev Psychopathol 8:735–749
Egger H, Costello J, Erkanli A, Angold A (1999) Somatic complaints and psychopathology of children and adolescents: stomach aches, musculoskeletal pains, and headaches. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38:852–860
Ferdinand RF, Verhulst FC (1995) Psychopathology from adolescence into young adulthood: an 8-year follow-up study. Am J Psychiatry 152:1586–1594
Herjanic B, Reich W (1997) Development of a structured psychiatric interview for children: agreement between child and parent on individual symptoms. J Abnorm Child Psychol 25:21–31
Hofstra MB, van der Ende J, Verhulst FC (2000) Continuity and change of psychopathology from childhood into adulthood: a 14-year follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:850–858
Hofstra MB, van der Ende J, Verhulst F (2002) Child and adolescent problems predict DSM-IV disorders in adulthood. A 14-year follow-up of Dutch epidemiological sample. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:182–189
Kagan J (1997) Temperament and the reactions to unfamiliarity. Child Dev 68:139–143
Kasius M, Ferdinand R, van den Berg H, Verhulst F (1997) Associations between different diagnostic approaches for child and adolescent psychopathology. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 38(6):625–632
Keenan K, Shaw DS, Walsh B, Delliquadri E, Giovannelli J (1997) DSM-III-R disorders in preschool children from low-income families. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 36:620–627
Kim-Cohen J, Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Harrington HL, Milne BJ, Poulton R (2003) Prior juvenile diagnoses in adults with mental disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 60:709–717
Kolko D, Kadzin A (1993) Emotional/behavioural problems in clinic and non-clinic children: correspondence among child, parent and teacher reports. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 34:991–1006
Koot H, van den Oord E, Verhulst F, Boomsma DI (1997) Behavioral and emotional problems in young pre-schoolers: cross-cultural testing of the validity of the Child Behavior Checklist 2/3. J Abnorm Child Psychol 25:183–196
Koskinen R, Meriläinen J, Gissler M, Virtanen M (1998) Finnish perinatal statistics 1996: statistical report. Stakes Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
Kroes M, Kalff A, Steyaert J, Kessels A, Feron F, Hendriksen J, van Zeben T, Troost J, Jolles J, Vles J (2002) A longitudinal community study: do psychosocial risk factors and Child Behavior Checklist scores at 5 years of age predict psychiatric diagnoses at a later age? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 41:955–963
Lavigne JV, Arend R, Rosenbaum D, Binns HJ, Christoffel KK, Gibbons RD (1998) Psychiatric disorders with onset in the preschool years: II: correlates and predictors of stable case status. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 37:1255–1261
Mesman J, Bongers I, Koot (2001) Preschool developmental pathways to preadolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42:679–689
Mesman J, Koot H (2000) Child-reported depression and anxiety in preadolescence: I. associations with parent- and teacher-reported problems. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 39:1371–1378
Mesman J, Koot H (2001) Early preschool predictors of preadolescent internalizing and externalizing DSM-IV diagnosis. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 40:1029–1036
Mesman J, Bongers I, Koot H (2001) Preschool developmental pathways to preadolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 42:679–689
Moffitt TE, Caspi A (2001) Childhood predictors differentiate life-course persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial pathways among males and females. Dev Psychopathol 13:355–375
Offord D, Boyle M, Racine Y (1992) Outcome, prognosis, and risk in a longitudinal follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31:916–923
Pihlakoski L, Aromaa M, Sourander A, Rautava P, Helenius H, Sillanpää M (2004) Use of and need for professional help for emotional and behavioral problems among preadolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 43:974–983
Rautava P, Sillanpää M (1989) The Finnish family competence study: knowledge of childbirth of nulliparous women seen at maternity health care clinics. J Epidemiol Community Health 43:253–260
Rose SL, Rose SA, Feldman J (1989) Stability of behaviour problems in very young children. Dev Psychopathol 1:5–19
Rubin K, Stewart L (1996) Social withdrawal. In: Mash E, Barkley R (eds), Child psychopathology. Guilford, New York, pp. 277–307
Rutter M (1989) Isle of Wight revisited: twenty-five years of child psychiatric epidemiology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28:633–653
Simonoff E, Pickles A, Meyer J (1997) The Virginia twin study of adolescent behavioral development: influences of age, sex, and impairment on rates of disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 54:801–808
Stanger C, Achenbach TM, Verhulst F (1997) Accelerated longitudinal comparisons of aggressive versus delinquent syndromes. Dev Psychopathol 9:43–58
Tremblay RE, Phil RO, Vitaro F, Dobkin PL (1994) Predicting early onset of male antisocial behavior from preschool behavior. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51:732–739
van der Valk J, van den Oord E, Verhulst F, Boomsma D (2003) Genetic and environmental contributions to stability and change in children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 42:1212–1220
Verhulst F, van der Ende J (1995) The eight-year stability of problem behavior in an epidemiological sample. Pediatr Res 38:612–617
Webster-Stratton C, Taylor T (2001) Nipping early risk factors in the bud: preventing substance abuse, delinquency, and violence in adolescence through interventions targeted at young children (0–8 years). Prev Sci 2:165–192
Wu P, Hoven C, Bird H, Moore R, Cohen P, Alegria M, Dulcan M, Goodman S, Horwitz S, Lichtman J, Narrow W, Rae D, Regier D, Roper M (1999) Depressive and disruptive disorders and mental health utilization in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 38:1081–1090
Acknowledgements
This study was financially supported by the Finnish Ministry of Social Affairs and Health; and the Turku University Foundation.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pihlakoski, L., Sourander, A., Aromaa, M. et al. The continuity of psychopathology from early childhood to preadolescence. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry 15, 409–417 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0548-1
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-006-0548-1