Factors associated with externalizing behaviour at age 5
| Factor | Analysis type; OR (95% CI) | |
|---|---|---|
| Unadjusted | Fully adjusted* | |
| Maternal ACEs, ≥ 4 | 2.59 (1.75–3.80) | 1.98 (1.26–3.11) |
| Child covariables | ||
| Child age, mo | 1.00 (0.94–1.06) | 1.02 (0.96–1.08) |
| Male sex | 2.43 (1.70–3.49) | 2.88 (1.92–4.34) |
| Negative affect (≥ 1 SD on Rothbart scale) | 3.03 (2.12–4.34) | 2.41 (1.59–3.67) |
| Maternal covariables | ||
| Maternal age, yr | 0.99 (0.96–1.03) | 0.99 (0.95–1.04) |
| Depression or anxiety† | ||
| None (baseline) | 1.0 (Ref.) | 1.0 (Ref.) |
| Present at 3 yr only | 1.97 (1.09–3.55) | 1.53 (0.78–3.03) |
| Present at 5 yr only | 2.80 (1.77–4.43) | 2.14 (1.27–3.59) |
| Present at 3 and 5 yr | 5.64 (3.69–8.60) | 4.20 (2.50–7.05) |
| High maternal neuroticism (≥ 1 SD on Eysenck scale) | 2.47 (1.69–3.58) | 0.97 (0.60–1.57) |
| High ineffective/hostile parenting (≥ 1 SD on parenting scale) at 5 yr | 7.61 (5.38–10.78) | 6.27 (4.30–9.14) |
| Sociodemographic covariables | ||
| Family income, per $50 000 increase | 0.81 (0.70–0.93) | 0.86 (0.72–1.02) |
| Minority ethnicity | 1.01 (0.66–1.56) | 0.87 (0.52–1.42) |
| Single-parent or blended family | 1.62 (0.91–2.86) | 1.17 (0.59–2.32) |
Noted: ACE = adverse childhood experience, CI = confidence interval, Eysenck scale = Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire Revised, OR = odds ratio, parenting scale = National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Ref. = reference category, Rothbart scale = Rothbart Child Temperament Scale, SD = standard deviation.
↵* Mutually adjusted for all variables in the model. In the adjusted model, n = 1613, C statistic = 0.8123, Hosmer–Lemeshow goodness-of-fit p value = 0.9.
↵† For data on maternal depression or anxiety, age refers to the child’s age.