Sample characteristics
| Characteristic | Children’s behaviour group; no. (%) of participant dyads* | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total n = 1688 | Externalizing | Internalizing | |||
| Yes n = 158 | No n = 1512 | Yes n = 273 | No n = 1395 | ||
| No. of maternal adverse childhood experiences | |||||
| 0 | 640 (38.0) | 43 (27.2) | 591 (39.2) | 89 (32.6) | 545 (39.2) |
| 1 | 407 (24.2) | 30 (19.0) | 373 (24.8) | 59 (21.6) | 343 (24.7) |
| 2 | 246 (14.6) | 24 (15.2) | 218 (14.5) | 41 (15.0) | 201 (14.5) |
| 3 | 158 (9.4) | 19 (12.0) | 139 (9.2) | 33 (12.1) | 124 (8.9) |
| ≥ 4 | 231 (13.7) | 42 (26.6) | 185 (12.3) | 51 (18.7) | 176 (12.7) |
| Child covariables | |||||
| Child’s age, mo, mean ± SD | 62 ± 3 | 61 ± 3 | 62 ± 3 | 61 ± 3 | 61 ± 3 |
| Male sex | 889 (52.9) | 113 (71.5) | 764 (50.7) | 135 (49.5) | 741 (53.3) |
| Negative affect (≥ 1 SD on Rothbart scale) | 277 (16.4) | 54 (34.2) | 221 (14.6) | 90 (33.0) | 185 (13.3) |
| Maternal covariables | |||||
| Maternal age, yr, mean ± SD | 36.4 ± 4.3 | 36.3 ± 4.5 | 36.4 ± 4.3 | 36.0 ± 4.3 | 36.5 ± 4.3 |
| Depression or anxiety† | |||||
| None | 1148 (69.5) | 68 (43.3) | 1080 (72.2) | 136 (50.4) | 1011 (73.3) |
| Depression or anxiety at 3 yr only | 136 (8.2) | 15 (9.6) | 121 (8.1) | 23 (8.5) | 113 (8.2) |
| Depression or anxiety at 5 yr only | 200 (12.1) | 30 (19.1) | 170 (11.4) | 47 (17.4) | 152 (11.0) |
| Depression or anxiety at 3 and 5 yr | 168 (10.2) | 44 (28.0) | 124 (8.3) | 64 (23.7) | 104 (7.5) |
| High maternal neuroticism (≥ 1 SD on Eysenck scale) | 260 (15.4) | 45 (28.5) | 210 (13.9) | 85 (31.1) | 169 (12.1) |
| High ineffective/hostile parenting (≥ 1 SD on parenting scale) at 5 yr | 312 (18.8) | 89 (57.1) | 223 (14.8) | 78 (28.8) | 233 (16.8) |
| Sociodemographic covariables | |||||
| Family income, Can$ | |||||
| < 50 000 | 83 (5.0) | 12 (7.6) | 71 (4.7) | 21 (7.7) | 61 (4.4) |
| 50 000 – 99 999 | 438 (26.4) | 48 (30.4) | 390 (25.9) | 79 (28.9) | 358 (25.8) |
| 100 000 – 149 999 | 506 (30.5) | 53 (33.5) | 453 (30.1) | 81 (29.7) | 425 (30.7) |
| 150 000 – 199 999 | 292 (17.6) | 24 (15.2) | 268 (17.8) | 46 (16.8) | 246 (17.7) |
| ≥ 200 000 | 342 (20.6) | 21 (13.3) | 321 (21.4) | 46 (16.8) | 296 (21.4) |
| Minority ethnicity | 295 (17.6) | 28 (17.7) | 264 (17.5) | 66 (24.2) | 225 (16.2) |
| Single-parent or blended family | 107 (6.4) | 15 (9.5) | 92 (6.1) | 23 (8.4) | 84 (6.0) |
Note: Eysenck scale = Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Revised, parenting scale = National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth, Rothbart scale = Rothbart Child Temperament Scale, SD = standard deviation.
↵* Except where indicated otherwise. For any given variable, there were less than 2% missing data.
↵† For data on maternal depression or anxiety, age refers to the child’s age.